Southern Africa's human history extends back through the millennia to the first rumblings of humanity on the planet. The first upright-walking 'hominids' established themselves in the savannas of southern and eastern Africa nearly 4 million years ago. These human-like creatures slowly developed into persons-as-we-know-'em as more sophisticated tools were produced and climatic conditions became more favourable. By the middle Stone Age, which lasted until 20,000 years ago, organised hunting and gathering societies had been established, and by 8000BC, late Stone Age people occupied rock shelters and caves all over southern Africa. The first inhabitants of Zimbabwe were probably nomadic, adaptable San groups, gradually absorbed by Khoi-Khoi grazier tribes, and slowly transmuting into a culture known as Khoisan.

Bantu-speaking farmers, either Khoisan settlers or Iron Age migrants from the north, were the first occupants of the Great Zimbabwe site in the south of the country. Between 500 and 1000AD, the Gokomere (a Bantu group into gold-mining and cattle ranching) enslaved and absorbed San groups in the area. As early as the 11th century, some foundations and stonework were in place at Great Zimbabwe and the settlement, generally regarded as the nascent Shona society, became the trading capital of the wealthiest and most powerful society in south-eastern Africa. The hilltop acropolis at Great Zimbabwe came to serve not only as a fortress but as a shrine for the worship of Mwari, the pre-eminent Shona deity. By the 15th century, Great Zimbabwe's influence had begun to decline, due to a heady cocktail of overpopulation, overgrazing, popular uprisings and political fragmentation.

The Shona dynasties fractured into autonomous states, many of which later formed the Rozwi state, which encompassed over half of present-day Zimbabwe well into the 19th century. In 1834, Ndebele raiders invaded from the south, assassinated the Rozwi leader and established a Ndebele state with the capital at Bulawayo. Meanwhile, European gold seekers and ivory hunters from the Cape were moving into Shona and Ndebele territory. The best known of these was Cecil John Rhodes who envisioned a corridor of British-style 'civilisation' stretching all the way from the Cape to Cairo. Sanctioned by Queen Victoria, white settlers swarmed in, led by the heavy-handed Rhodes. By 1895, the new country was being referred to as Rhodesia and a white legislature was set up. By 1911 there were some 24,000 settlers.

Amazingly, the Ndebele and Shona natives weren't overly delighted about the colonists coming in and telling them what was what, even though the Brits were ever so reasonable about everything and had jolly nice safari suits. Jihad-like revolts, raids and razzing in the last years of the 19th century became known as Chimurenga, the War for Liberation, but the fight stalled in 1897 when the crusade leaders were captured and hanged. Conflicts between black and white came into sharp focus during the 1920s and 30s through referenda and legislation which excluded black Africans from ownership of the best farmland and from skilled trades and professions. The effect was to force Africans to work on white farms and in mines and factories. Poor wages and conditions led to rebellion and African political parties emerged.

Ian Smith became Rhodesia's president in 1964 and began pressing for independence. When he realised that Britain's conditions for cutting the tether wouldn't be accepted by Rhodesia's whites, he made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence. The Declaration was declared illegal by Britain, and the UN imposed sanctions (mostly ignored) in 1968. The African parties opted for increasingly fierce guerilla warfare (known as the Second Chimurenga) and whites began to abandon their homes and farms. Smith tried ceasefires, amnesties, secret talks and sneaky assassinations, all of which failed to curb the fighting. Finally, he was forced to call a general non-racial election and hand over leadership to Abel Muzorewa, an African National Congress member.

Internationally, Muzorewa was taken about as seriously as the Spice Girls, and when Margaret Thatcher became British PM in 1979, she applied steely fix-it attention to the situation. A constitution was painfully thrashed out between Smith, Muzorewa, and other high-ranking nationalists such as Joshua Nkomo and Robert Mugabe. In the carefully monitored election of March 1980, Mugabe prevailed by a wide margin and Zimbabwe joined the ranks of Africa's independent nations.

Mugabe, a committed Marxist, has hung on to power ever since. He's survived resurgent rivalry and guerilla activity through a canny combination of dirty government, gerrymander and intimidation. It seems unlikely that Mugabe will ever get his one-party state - especially after the collapse of the USSR, the landslide defeat of Kaunda (a very mixed-up Marxist) in neighbouring Zambia and the increasingly strident demands by the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and aid donors for the introduction of greater democratic measures in return for loan or aid.

Zimbabwe's citizens have become increasingly impatient with Mugabe as his large-scale mismanagement has filtered down as hip-pocket pinch. In Harare in early 1998, the dissatisfaction spilt over into open hostility, riots and looting. Although the country is recovering from the catastrophic drought of the early 1990s, the economy remains in dire straits. Zimbabwe, and Mugabe in particular, have come under increasing scrutiny due to the worrying increase in politically motivated human rights abuses and general climate of fear.

Mugabe was reelected in March 2002, but the election was controversial and marred by scandal. The rival Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) has united with other civic organizations in continuing protests for a new constitution and against Mugabe's dictatorial tactics. Mugabe has accused his rivals of treason and clamped down on journalists who dare criticize his regime. International leaders are keeping a close watch on the situation and hoping to stave off further chaos through negotiations.

Artists are highly esteemed in Zimbabwean society and a greater percentage of artists make a viable living from their trade than in most other countries. In fact, Zimbabweans seem to take a measure of artistic talent for granted. Traditional arts, most of which are still practised, include pottery, basketry, textiles, jewellery and carving. Perhaps most notable for their quality and beauty are the symmetrically patterned woven baskets and stools carved from a single piece of wood. Shona sculpture, a melding of African folklore with European artistic training, has been evolving over the past few decades. One recurring theme is the metamorphosis of man into beast, the prescribed punishment for violations such as making a meal of one's totem animal. Most of the work is superb and a few Zimbabwean sculptors are recognised among the world's best.

Zimbabwean's mesmerising music has always been an important part of its cultural life. African legends are punctuated by musical choruses in which the audience participates, and social events (such as weddings, funerals, harvest and births) are each accompanied by unique songs. Traditional musical instruments include the marimba, a richly-toned wooden xylophone and the mbira, a cute plinky-plonky device more commonly known as a thumb piano. The oddest percussion instrument used in Zimbabwe are the mujejeje ('stone bells'). Many stones in granite outcrops around the country have exfoliated in such a way that when struck, they resound with a lovely bell-like tone (Zimbabwe's first rock music? - ouch). Harare is one of Africa's great musical centres, attracting South African exiles and indigenous musicians performing variations on Chimurenga music, inspired by the wars of independence.

Between 40% and 50% of Zimbabweans belong to Christian churches, but their belief system is characterised more by a hybrid of Christian and traditional beliefs than by dogmatic Christianity. The Mwari cult, a monotheistic animist belief system which entails ancestor worship, and spiritual proxy and intercession, is the dominant non-Christian religion. Mwari, the unknowable supreme being, speaks to his human subjects through The Voice of Mwari, a cave-dwelling oracle who is most often female. The oracle serves as an intercessionary between the spirits, the god and the people, especially in cases of natural disaster or outside aggression. It was the oracle, in fact, who received the go-ahead to begin the First Chimurenga (rebellion) in 1896.

English is the official language of Zimbabwe, but it is a first language for only about 2% of the population. The rest of the people are native speakers of Bantu languages, the two most prominent of which are Shona, spoken by 76% of the population, and Sindebele, spoken by 18%. Although most urban Zimbabweans have at least a little knowledge of English, once you're out in the sticks, a few words of Shona or Sindebele will go a long way. Annoying co-travellers can be swiftly despatched by dedicated practising of the Sindebele 'clicks', made by drawing the tongue away from the front teeth, slapping it on the roof of the mouth, or drawing it quickly sideways from the right upper gum.

Zimbabwean cuisine is mostly the legacy of bland British fare combined with normally stodgy African dishes. The dietary staple is sadza - the white maize meal porridge upon which most local meals are built. The second component is nyama - meat, usually beef or chicken, but also crocodile, kudu and impala. Fruit and vegetables are limited, but don't miss gem squash, a delicious type of marrow.